Sambucus nigra

Common Names:

• English: Black Elderberry, Elder, European Elder, Common Elder
• Dutch (Nederlands): Zwarte Vlier, Gewone Vlier, Europese Vlier

Binomial Name:

Sambucus nigra

Family:

Adoxaceae (formerly classified under Caprifoliaceae)

Used Plant Parts:

• Flowers – Used for teas, syrups, and medicinal infusions
• Berries – Used in jams, syrups, wines, juices, and herbal remedies (must be cooked before consumption)
• Leaves – Occasionally used in traditional medicine (but can be toxic in large amounts)
• Bark & Roots – Historically used in herbal medicine but are considered toxic and not commonly used today

Elderberries contain up to 10 times more anthocyanins (powerful antioxidants) than red grapes, helping protect cells from oxidative stress.

Fact 1 of 4

Origins, Distribution, and Habitat

Origin and Historical Background

Sambucus nigra, commonly known as black elderberry, has a long history dating back thousands of years. It is native to Europe, North Africa, and parts of Western and Central Asia.

The plant has been highly valued in traditional medicine, folklore, and even mythology. Ancient civilizations, including the Greeks and Romans, used elderberry for its medicinal properties, while European folklore often associated the tree with mystical and protective qualities.

Geographical Distribution

Today, black elderberry is widely distributed across temperate regions of the world. It is commonly found in:

• Europe – From the Mediterranean to Scandinavia, thriving in both wild and cultivated environments.
• Asia – Particularly in Western and Central Asia, extending into parts of the Middle East.
• North Africa – Naturally occurring in regions with a Mediterranean climate.
• North America – Introduced and naturalized in many parts of the United States and Canada, where it is sometimes confused with native elderberry species (e.g., Sambucus canadensis).

Because of its adaptability and usefulness, Sambucus nigra has also been cultivated in other regions, including Australia and South America.

Natural Habitat

Black elderberry thrives in a variety of environments, but it prefers:

• Moist, fertile soils – Often found near riverbanks, forest edges, and hedgerows.
• Temperate climates – It grows best in regions with cool winters and mild summers.
• Partial to full sunlight – Though it can tolerate some shade, it flourishes in open spaces with good sun exposure.

Due to its rapid growth and ability to spread, Sambucus nigra often colonizes disturbed areas, making it a common sight in rural and suburban landscapes.

Ecological Importance

Sambucus nigra plays a vital role in its ecosystem, benefiting both wildlife and biodiversity.

Wildlife Support

• Pollinators: The fragrant white flowers attract bees, butterflies, and other pollinators, making it an important nectar source in early summer.
• Birds and Mammals: The small, dark berries provide a rich food source for birds such as blackbirds, thrushes, and warblers, as well as small mammals like foxes and badgers.
• Soil and Water Conservation: Its deep root system helps stabilize soil, prevent erosion, and improve water retention in riparian areas.

Companion Planting and Biodiversity

Due to its rapid growth and dense foliage, elderberry is sometimes used as a windbreak or a hedge, creating shelter for insects and small animals. It also contributes to a diverse plant community by enriching the soil with organic matter as its leaves decompose.

Botanical Description:

General Morphology

Sambucus nigra is a fast-growing, deciduous shrub or small tree that can reach heights of 4 to 8 meters (13 to 26 feet), occasionally growing taller under optimal conditions. It has a broad, spreading canopy with arching branches, giving it a graceful yet somewhat untamed appearance.

Its rapid growth and adaptability make it a common sight along hedgerows, woodland edges, and riverbanks.

Leaves

The leaves of Sambucus nigra are opposite, pinnately compound, and typically 15 to 30 cm (6 to 12 inches) long. Each leaf consists of 5 to 7 ovate-lanceolate leaflets, with serrated edges and a pointed tip. The upper surface of the leaf is a deep green, while the underside is slightly lighter.

When crushed, the leaves emit a distinct, somewhat unpleasant odor, which is thought to deter herbivores.

Flowers

One of the most striking features of black elderberry is its clusters of creamy-white flowers, known as corymbs. These flat-topped or slightly convex inflorescences can measure 10 to 25 cm (4 to 10 inches) across and bloom in late spring to early summer (May–July, depending on the climate).

Each tiny flower has five petals and a central cluster of yellow stamens, emitting a mild, sweet fragrance that attracts pollinators such as bees and butterflies.

Fruits (Berries)

Following pollination, the flowers give way to small, dark purple to nearly black berries in late summer to early autumn (August–October). These berries, technically known as drupes, grow in dense drooping clusters.

Each berry is about 5 to 8 mm (0.2 to 0.3 inches) in diameter and contains three to five small seeds. While toxic when raw due to cyanogenic glycosides, the berries become safe to consume after cooking and are widely used in herbal medicine, culinary preparations, and natural dyes.

Bark and Stem

The bark of young branches is smooth and greenish-brown, but as the plant matures, it becomes rough, furrowed, and deeply fissured, with a gray-brown coloration.

The inner pith is soft and spongy, historically used for crafting and scientific instruments. The stems are hollow, making them a favorite material for traditional whistles and flutes in European folklore.

Root System

Sambucus nigra has a fibrous, shallow root system that spreads widely, allowing it to establish itself quickly in a variety of environments. This root structure aids in erosion control, particularly in riparian zones and disturbed soils.

Clinical studies show that elderberry extract can reduce flu symptoms by up to 50% and shorten illness duration by 2–4 days when taken at the onset of symptoms.

Fact 2 of 4

Active Compounds

Sambucus nigra contains a rich variety of bioactive compounds that contribute to its chemical complexity.

These compounds include flavonoids, phenolic acids, anthocyanins, tannins, and alkaloids, which are naturally occurring phytochemicals (plant-derived substances) found in various parts of the plant, including the berries, flowers, leaves, and bark.

Flavonoids

Flavonoids are a group of plant pigments known for their antioxidant properties. Sambucus nigra is particularly rich in:

• Quercetin – A flavonoid that helps protect plants from environmental stress and gives elderberries part of their deep color.
• Kaempferol – Another antioxidant flavonoid that contributes to the plant’s defense system.
• Isorhamnetin – A flavonoid that plays a role in protecting plant cells from damage.
• Rutin – Found in both the flowers and leaves, rutin strengthens plant cell walls and helps regulate water movement within the plant.

Anthocyanins

Anthocyanins are a type of flavonoid responsible for the deep purple-black color of elderberries. These pigments are water-soluble and are primarily found in the berry skin. The most abundant anthocyanins in Sambucus nigra include:

• Cyanidin-3-glucoside – A pigment that gives the berries their dark coloration.
• Delphinidin-3-glucoside – Another pigment responsible for the rich purple hue.

Phenolic Acids

Phenolic acids are compounds that protect plants from harmful environmental factors such as UV radiation and pathogens. Sambucus nigra contains:

• Chlorogenic acid – Found in high amounts in the flowers, this compound helps plants fight off microbial attacks.
• Caffeic acid – A natural compound involved in the plant’s defense system.
• Ferulic acid – Helps strengthen plant cell walls and protect against oxidative stress (damage caused by free radicals).

Tannins

Tannins are a class of polyphenols (plant compounds with astringent properties) that contribute to the slightly bitter taste of elderberry leaves and bark. These compounds play a role in plant defense by making the plant less palatable to herbivores.

Alkaloids

Alkaloids are nitrogen-containing compounds that often have strong physiological effects. In Sambucus nigra, some alkaloids can be mildly toxic in high amounts, particularly in unripe berries, leaves, and bark. One of the most notable alkaloids present is sambucine, which is believed to act as a natural insect deterrent.

Lectins

Lectins are proteins that can bind to carbohydrates and influence plant interactions with insects, fungi, and microbes. In elderberries, Sambucus nigra agglutinin (SNA) is a specific lectin that contributes to the plant’s natural resistance against pests.

Cyanogenic Glycosides

Cyanogenic glycosides are naturally occurring compounds that can release small amounts of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) when the plant material is damaged or chewed. These compounds are most concentrated in unripe berries, leaves, and bark.

The main cyanogenic glycoside found in Sambucus nigra is sambunigrin, which acts as a deterrent to herbivores and insects.

Uses in Traditional Medicine

For centuries, Sambucus nigra (black elderberry) has been a staple in traditional medicine across Europe, Asia, and North Africa. Many cultures recognized its healing properties and used different parts of the plant—flowers, berries, leaves, and bark—for various ailments.

Ancient and Classical Uses

Ancient Greece and Rome

Greek physicians, including Hippocrates (460–370 BCE), often referred to elderberry as their “medicine chest” due to its versatility. The Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) documented its use for skin conditions, inflammation, and respiratory ailments. Both Greek and Roman herbalists recommended elderberry extracts as a general tonic.

Traditional Celtic and Germanic Medicine

Among Celtic and Germanic tribes, elder trees were believed to have protective and magical properties. The plant was commonly used in sacred rituals, and elderberry infusions were believed to ward off evil spirits and disease.

The berries were sometimes fermented into medicinal wines, and the bark was used in poultices (herbal pastes) for external healing.

Medieval European Herbalism

During the Middle Ages, elderberry became a key ingredient in monastic medicine. Monks in medieval apothecaries prepared elderflower and elderberry syrups, which were commonly used in treating fevers and seasonal ailments.

Dutch Folk Medicine

In the Netherlands, elderberry (called “Zwarte Vlier”) was a well-known remedy in folk medicine. Dutch herbalists used elderflower infusions to help with colds, and elderberry syrup was traditionally given to children during the colder months.

Some villages believed that planting an elder tree near the home brought health and protection. The bark and leaves were sometimes applied externally for minor wounds and skin conditions.

English and Scandinavian Traditions

In England and Scandinavia, elderberry had deep roots in rural medicine. In English folk remedies, the flowers were used in teas and tinctures, while the wood was sometimes burned as a cleansing smoke in homes during illness outbreaks.

In Nordic traditions, elder trees were considered sacred, and the plant was used in herbal baths and poultices to aid recovery from injuries.

Traditional Uses in Slavic and Baltic Medicine

In Eastern Europe, elderberry was considered a protective plant, and both the flowers and berries were used in seasonal tonics. In Poland, Russia, and the Baltic states, elderflower cordials were widely prepared, believed to strengthen the body during harsh winters.

The plant was also burned in homes to cleanse the air and keep away disease.

North African and Middle Eastern Traditions

Though native to Europe, Sambucus nigra was also used in North African and Middle Eastern herbal traditions, likely introduced through trade routes. The flowers were used in cooling herbal teas, and elderberry preparations were sometimes included in mixtures to support overall health.

Native American Parallels

Although Sambucus nigra is native to Europe, its close relative, Sambucus canadensis (American elderberry), was widely used by Native American tribes. Some traditional uses of Sambucus canadensis mirrored those of its European counterpart, particularly in the preparation of teas, poultices, and fermented elderberry drinks.

Hippocrates, the “Father of Medicine,” called elderberry his “medicine chest” due to its wide range of healing properties over 2,000 years ago.

Fact 3 of 4

Evidence-Based Medical Applications

1. Antiviral Effects

Sambucus nigra has demonstrated strong antiviral properties, particularly against influenza and coronaviruses. A clinical study[1] found that elderberry extract reduced influenza symptoms by 50% within 48 hours of onset (Bartak et al., 2020).

Another study[2] suggested that elderberry compounds inhibit viral entry by preventing hemagglutinin binding (Shahsavandi et al., 2017).

Mechanism of Action:

• Anthocyanins block viral surface proteins, preventing viral entry into host cells.
• Flavonoids enhance immune response by increasing cytokine production.
• Polyphenols inhibit viral replication inside infected cells.

2. Immune System Support

Elderberry extract stimulates cytokine production, leading to enhanced immune function. Clinical trials[3] show that daily elderberry supplementation increases IL-6 and TNF-α levels by 30%, improving immune response (Santin et al., 2021).

Mechanism of Action:

• Activation of Toll-like receptors enhances white blood cell function.
• Increased production of inflammatory cytokines accelerates immune defense against pathogens.

3. Anti-Inflammatory Properties

Extracts of S. nigra reduce inflammation in conditions such as arthritis and respiratory infections. Studies found that elderberry supplementation reduces C-reactive protein (CRP) levels by 25% in patients with chronic inflammation (Mota et al., 2020).

Mechanism of Action:

• Flavonoids suppress pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β and TNF-α.
• Polyphenols inhibit NF-κB, a key inflammatory signaling pathway.

4. Antioxidant Activity

Elderberry is rich in antioxidants, protecting cells from oxidative damage. One study[4] found that S. nigra extract increases superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity by 40%, reducing oxidative stress (Liu et al., 2022).

Mechanism of Action:

• Anthocyanins neutralize free radicals, preventing cellular damage.
• Increased activity of endogenous antioxidant enzymes (SOD, catalase) enhances oxidative stress resistance.

5. Cardiovascular Benefits

Regular consumption of elderberry has been linked[5] to reduced cholesterol and improved blood vessel function. A 12-week study showed a 10% decrease in LDL cholesterol and a 7% increase in HDL cholesterol in participants taking elderberry extract (Corrado et al., 2023).

Mechanism of Action:

• Flavonoids improve nitric oxide production, enhancing vascular dilation.
• Polyphenols reduce lipid oxidation, preventing atherosclerosis.

Applications Requiring Further Research

1. Antidiabetic Effects

Preliminary studies suggest that elderberry may help regulate blood sugar levels. One study showed that elderberry extract increased glucose uptake in muscle cells by 20% and stimulated insulin secretion (Gray et al., 2000).

Proposed Mechanism:

• Flavonoids improve insulin receptor sensitivity.
• Polyphenols enhance glucose metabolism in liver and muscle cells.

2. Neuroprotective Effects

Research indicates that S. nigra may protect against neurodegeneration. Elderberry polyphenols reduce oxidative stress in brain cells by 30%, suggesting[6] potential benefits in Alzheimer’s disease (Palomino et al., 2021).

Proposed Mechanism:

• Polyphenols reduce amyloid-beta plaque formation.
• Antioxidants prevent neuronal apoptosis (cell death).

3. Anticonvulsant Properties

Animal studies indicate that S. nigra extracts may have antiepileptic effects. Mice treated with elderberry extract showed a 50% reduction in seizure duration in induced convulsion models (Ataee et al., 2016).

Proposed Mechanism:

• GABA receptor modulation reduces neuronal excitability.
• Flavonoids stabilize ion channel activity in brain cells.

4. Liver Protection

Elderberry extract may support liver detoxification. A study found that elderberry polyphenols reduced liver enzyme levels by 20% in subjects with mild liver damage (Avena et al., 2024).

Proposed Mechanism:

• Polyphenols enhance liver enzyme activity for detoxification.
• Flavonoids protect liver cells from oxidative stress.

5. Anticancer Potential

Preliminary research[7] suggests that elderberry extract induces apoptosis in breast and colon cancer cells (Henriques Mota et al., 2020).

Proposed Mechanism:

• Activation of caspase-dependent cell death pathways.
• Suppression of tumor angiogenesis (new blood vessel formation in tumors).

Recommended Dosage

Standardized Dosage for Adults

Clinical studies support the use of Sambucus nigra for immune support and respiratory infections. The recommended adult dosage depends on the formulation:

• Elderberry Syrup: 10–15 mL (1–3 teaspoons) daily for immune support. For [8] respiratory viral infections: A rapid review of clinical studies. Advances in Integrative Medicine, 7(3), 240-246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aimed.2020.08.001″ class=”js–wpm-format-cite”>acute[8] respiratory infections, 10–15 mL up to four times per day for up to 5 days (Harnett et al., 2020).
• Elderberry Capsules/Tablets: 300–600 mg daily of standardized elderberry extract, containing[9] at least 10% anthocyanins (Ciocoiu et al., 2016).
• Elderberry Tea: Steeping 5 g of dried elderberry in 250 mL hot water for 10–15 minutes, consumed[10] 1–3 times daily (Goud & Prasad, 2020).
• Elderberry Lozenges: 175–300 mg of elderberry extract, taken every 2–4 hours, with a maximum[11] of 4 doses per day (Harnett et al., 2020).

Standardized Dosage for Children

Studies indicate that Sambucus nigra is generally safe for children over one year of age. However, doses should be reduced proportionally:

• Elderberry Syrup:
  • Ages 1–5: 5 mL (1 teaspoon) once daily.
  • Ages 6–12: 5–10 mL (1–2 teaspoons) twice daily.
  • For acute infections: 5 mL up to four[12] times per day (Della Volpe et al., 2019).
• Elderberry Lozenges (Ages 6–12): 100–175 mg per lozenge, every 4–6 hours, up to 3 times daily (Harnett et al., 2020).
• Elderberry Tea (Ages 4–12): 2.5 g dried elderberry per 150 mL of hot water, consumed 1–2 times daily (Ciocoiu et al., 2016).

Dosage for Specific Conditions

• Cold & Flu Symptoms: Elderberry extract significantly reduces symptom duration when taken within 48 hours of onset. The recommended regimen is 15 mL of elderberry syrup, four times daily for 5 days in adults, and 5 mL, four times daily in children (Harnett et al., 2020).
• Cardiovascular Health: 500 mg of elderberry[13] extract daily improves lipid profiles and blood pressure over 8–12 weeks (Ciocoiu et al., 2016).
• Diuretic Support: 70 mg/kg body weight of elderberry extract once daily increases[14] urinary output and electrolyte excretion (Gutierrez et al., 2023).

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Side Effects

1. Gastrointestinal Disturbances

Consumption of raw or improperly processed elderberry can cause nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea due to cyanogenic glycosides. A study found that mild gastrointestinal discomfort occurred in 10–15% of individuals taking unprocessed elderberry extract (Laffita & Castillo, 2011).

Mechanism:

• Raw elderberries contain sambunigrin, which releases hydrogen cyanide upon metabolism.
• Poorly prepared extracts may retain toxic compounds, leading to digestive distress.

2. Allergic Reactions

Allergic reactions, including skin rashes and respiratory issues, have been reported in sensitive individuals. A case study documented allergic rhinitis and contact dermatitis following elderberry syrup consumption (Stępień et al., 2023).

Mechanism:

• Elderberry contains proteins that may trigger immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated hypersensitivity reactions.
• Cross-reactivity with pollen allergens may increase sensitivity in allergic individuals.

3. Hypoglycemia (Low Blood Sugar)

Elderberry may lower blood glucose levels, posing a risk for hypoglycemia in diabetics. A study observed that daily elderberry extract reduced fasting glucose by 10–15% in patients with type 2 diabetes (Ciocoiu et al., 2016).

Mechanism:

• Polyphenols in elderberry enhance insulin sensitivity and glucose uptake.
• Flavonoids influence pancreatic beta-cell activity, increasing insulin release.

4. Autoimmune Exacerbation

Elderberry stimulates the immune system, potentially worsening autoimmune conditions like rheumatoid arthritis and lupus. A clinical trial found increased TNF-α and IL-6 levels in participants with autoimmune disorders after elderberry intake (Santin et al., 2021).

Mechanism:

• Elderberry enhances cytokine production, leading to heightened immune responses.
• Increased inflammation may exacerbate autoimmune symptoms.

5. Potential Cytotoxicity

High doses of elderberry extract showed cytotoxic effects on liver and kidney cells in vitro (Murtadlo et al., 2023).

Mechanism:

• Excess polyphenols can induce oxidative stress at high concentrations.
• Liver enzyme modulation may interfere with detoxification pathways.

Drug Interactions

Interaction with Immunosuppressants

Elderberry may reduce the effectiveness of immunosuppressive drugs used in transplant patients and autoimmune diseases.

Affected Medications:

• Cyclosporine
• Corticosteroids (Prednisone, Dexamethasone)
• Methotrexate

Mechanism:

• Elderberry stimulates cytokine release, potentially reducing immunosuppressant effectiveness (Laffita & Castillo, 2011).

2. Interaction with Antidiabetic Medications

Elderberry may enhance insulin activity, increasing the risk of hypoglycemia in patients on diabetes medications.

Affected Medications:

• Metformin
• Insulin
• Sulfonylureas (Glipizide, Glyburide)

Mechanism:

• Polyphenols in elderberry improve glucose metabolism, potentiating hypoglycemic effects (Ciocoiu et al., 2016).

3. Interaction with Diuretics

Elderberry has mild diuretic properties, which may amplify the effects of prescription diuretics, increasing dehydration risk.

Affected Medications:

• Furosemide (Lasix)
• Hydrochlorothiazide

Mechanism:

• Flavonoids increase urinary output, potentially leading to electrolyte imbalances (Gutierrez et al., 2023).

4. Interaction with Antiviral Medications

Elderberry modulates viral entry mechanisms and interferon pathways, which may alter antiviral drug effectiveness.

Affected Medications:

• Oseltamivir (Tamiflu)
• Acyclovir
• Remdesivir

Mechanism:

• Elderberry inhibits viral hemagglutinin, possibly affecting drug-virus interactions (Molden, 2009).

5. Interaction with CYP3A4 Substrate Medications

Elderberry moderately inhibits CYP3A4, an enzyme responsible for metabolizing many drugs, potentially increasing drug concentrations.

Affected Medications:

• Statins (Atorvastatin, Simvastatin)
• Calcium Channel Blockers (Amlodipine, Verapamil)
• Benzodiazepines (Diazepam, Midazolam)

Mechanism:

• Elderberry components inhibit CYP3A4, slowing drug metabolism and increasing systemic drug levels (Molden, 2009).

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Sambucus nigra can grow up to 2.5 meters (8 feet) per year, making it one of the fastest-growing medicinal shrubs in temperate climates.

Fact 4 of 4

Bibliography